1.0 The TAC – Working to Build A Safer Driving Community

"Victoria has become a leader in road safety through the development of innovative, leading-edge road safety initiatives. Against this background, the TAC is constantly striving for further road safety improvements and a reduction in deaths and injuries on our roads. To achieve this, we must adopt a leadership stance whenever possible and act as a catalyst for change in the broader community.

The TAC is also committed to the health and well-being of its own staff.

To this end, the TAC has endorsed a safe driving policy that utilises the organisation's extensive road safety knowledge and clearly sets out everyone's obligations in helping to deliver a safe driving environment.

The TAC Safe Driving Policy is designed to assist drivers to better understand the most common factors contributing to road crashes and casualties, and show them how to reduce those risks.

The TAC Safe Driving Policy seeks to establish a partnership – where the employer and employee adopt a safe approach to the task of driving, as they would any other work task.

To demonstrate its commitment, the TAC leases a range of vehicles equipped with proven safety features that allow for a safer driving experience. These vehicles assist in crash prevention and, in the event of a crash, can offer good occupant protection.

Staff intending to access a TAC vehicle (company or fleet) are required to agree to abide by the TAC Safe Driving Policy before taking possession of the vehicle. In this way, staff represent the TAC in a professional and responsible manner on the road, and act as role models for other road users.

Through this commitment we are all working to build a safer driving community."

Janet Dore
Chief Executive Officer

FLEETS, BOTH PUBLIC AND PRIVATE, MAKE UP A SIGNIFICANT PROPORTION OF THE TRAFFIC EACH DAY ON VICTORIA'S ROADS.

If each driver of a fleet vehicle is committed to safe and courteous driving by complying with a company-based Safe Driving Policy, the overall safety level on our roads would improve significantly.

2.0 SAFE USE OF VEHICLES

SPEEDING

What you should do:

Drive within the speed limit at all times. You should drive at speeds that are safe for the conditions, recognising that, in some circumstances (such as rain or fog) this may be below the posted speed limit.

When considering what a 'safe' speed is, you should give consideration not only to weather and road conditions, but also to the potential impact of a collision on road-users who are inherently vulnerable, such as pedestrians, motorcyclists and cyclists.

In addition, you should observe speed limits in unenforced areas such as the TAC car park (signed speed limit is 10kmh) where visibility is poor and pedestrian activity is high.

Why you should do it:

Speed, both inappropriate and excessive, contributes very significantly to road trauma on Victorian roads. Small changes in travel speeds can have a significant impact on road trauma. For instance, a 5km/h reduction would achieve a 15% reduction in crashes.

SEATBELTS AND OTHER SAFETY FEATURES

What you should do:

The TAC will continue to lease vehicles with features that promote safer driving, such as seatbelt warning devices and daytime running lights.

Please:

• wear a seatbelt at all times, including all stages of pregnancy, and ensure that passengers do the same;
• drive with your headlights on at all times if your vehicle is not fitted with daytime running lights; and
• adjust your headrests so the top of the rest is level with the top of your head.

Why you should do it:

Although Victoria continues to have one of the highest seatbelt wearing rates in the world, each year more than 20% of car occupants who are killed are not wearing a seatbelt. Seatbelts and other safety features are proven to dramatically reduce the risk of death and injury in the event of a crash.

ALCOHOL, DRUGS AND DRIVING

What you should do:

You should minimise and preferably avoid the use of alcohol prior to driving and under no circumstances be over the legal blood limit for your class of licence. Never drive under the influence of medications or other drugs that are likely to affect your alertness or driving performance. Do not drive if you are unfit to do so. Contact your Divisional People Manager if you are unsure about your fitness to drive.

Why you should do it:

A driver at .05 is twice as likely to be involved in a crash as a driver who has not been drinking. The risk at .08 is four times that of a sober driver. Furthermore, medical evidence suggests that if you are involved in a crash, alcohol may make you more susceptible to injury.

In the years 2004 -2006 one in four drivers killed in a crash had a blood alcohol concentration at or above .05.

LACK OF SLEEP AND DRIVING

Danger Signs of Fatigue

Some of the common signs of fatigue generally recognised by drivers include:

• Yawning;
• Heavy eyes;
• Blurred vision;
• Reduced concentration or 'zoning out';
• Delayed reactions;
• Difficulty in keeping the car within a lane or drifting off the road;
• More frequent and unnecessary variations in driving speed; and
• Difficulty remembering the last few kilometres.

By the time drivers recognise the above symptoms, fatigue has already started to affect driving ability. Attempting to fight the signs of fatigue (such as winding down the window, turning up the volume of the radio) and continuing to drive is very dangerous.

It can lead to the onset of the most critical stage of driving while fatigued – nodding off or falling asleep at the wheel.

What you should do:

Plan realistic driving schedules, stop for appropriate rest breaks, take a 'powernap' if you are feeling tired and avoid driving during normal sleeping hours. A good night's sleep is required before any long trip. Avoid any consumption of alcohol before and during your journey.

A general rule to remember is driving more than 16 hours since your last night's sleep is equivalent to driving with a blood alcohol level greater than .05. Alternatives such as taxis and/or public transport should be considered where practical. If you are concerned about your level of fatigue, please contact your Divisional People Manager.

Why you should do it:

Driving when tired can be as dangerous as drink-driving.Driver fatigue affects concentration and reaction times.Fatigue (lack of sleep) is a factor in around 25% of casualty crashes and almost one in three severe single vehicle crashes on rural roads.

USE OF MOBILE PHONES

Dangers of Using a Mobile Phone whilst Driving

Driving while using a mobile phone can cause both physical and cognitive distractions. Specifically, using a mobile phone while driving can significantly impair a driver's:

• reaction time;
• visual searchpatterns;
• ability tomaintain speed and position on the road;
• ability to judgesafe gaps in the traffic; and
• general awarenessof other traffic.

What you should do:

The use of hands-free mobile phones should be kept to an absolute minimum when driving. The use of hand-held mobile phones is illegal and must not be used at all when driving. Allow calls to go to message bank, or if a call must be taken, pull over safely before answering the call.

Page 12 of this policy explains the increased risks of using your mobile phone while driving. The TAC strongly encourages all employees who use mobile phones to consider their safety and the safety of other road users by altering their voicemail message to the example given below:

"Hi, you've contacted the mobile of (your name) at the TAC. I'm sorry I can't take your call right now because I'm driving my car or otherwise engaged. Please leave your name, contact details and a brief message after the tone and I'll return your call."

Why you should do it:

Using mobile phones while driving has been found toincrease crash risk. Talking on the hone has significant impacts on car control and safety. The associated lack of concentration leads to actions such as driving around corners too fast and delayed braking. The risk of being involved in a fatal crash while using a mobile phone (hand held and hands-free) is four times higher than when not using a mobile phone at all.

COMPLYING WITH ROAD RULES

If you are driving a TAC vehicle, you must:

• hold a valid driver licence;
• carry your licence at all times; and
• adhere to all Victorian road rules.

COURTEOUS DRIVING

The TAC promotes courteous driving and encourages you to drive appropriately for the road conditions, driving courteously by letting other vehicles merge and being patient at pedestrian crossings. This will discourage the potential for aggressive behaviour with others sharing

the road. This driving behaviour should also apply outside work hours and your family and friends should be encouraged to do the same.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF THE SAFE DRIVING POLICY

If you intend to use either a company or fleet vehicle, you are required to sign the form on page 7 of this document to acknowledge that you have read and agree to abide by the Safe Driving Policy before taking possession of a vehicle. Please forward the signed policy with a photocopy of your driver licence to the TAC's Fleet Officer. Once electronically recorded, both documents will be forwarded to the People Division and securely stored. Each time you book a TAC vehicle via the online Car Pool Booking system, you will be asked two questions:

1. Are you fit to drive?

Driving a motor vehicle is a complex task involving perception, good judgment, adequate response time and reasonable physical capability. Fitness to drive involves having all of these capacities, and not having any condition which may impair you, either temporarily or permanently.

1. Do you hold a current and valid driver licence?

Employees to whom the vehicle is provided must hold a current and valid driver licence.

If you answer 'No' to either or both of these questions or are unsure of your answer, you should contact your Divisional People Manager to discuss alternative arrangements.

 DISCIPLINARY PROCEDURES

Please obey all Victorian road laws. You will personally incur the penalties and demerit points attached to breaches. You will also be subjected to internal disciplinary actions ranging from counselling to possible termination of employment depending on the type of offence. For a full version of the disciplinary actions, please go to InTAC, Employment Policies and look under Safe Driving Policy – Disciplinary Guidelines.

REPORTING OF DRIVING RELATED INCIDENTS – OHS REQUIREMENT

If you have been involved in a crash or an incident (eg. scratched the bumper in the car park), please notify the Fleet manager as soon as possible. The TAC is required under OHS legislation to record all work related incidents – including driving incidents. These reports will assist the TAC in identifying risks and implementing appropriate controls to prevent similar incidents from occurring in future.

YOUR PRIVACY

• Under the Occupational Health and Safety Act, the TAC must obtain proof to ensure you are qualified to drive prior to allowing you to drive a TAC provided vehicle. For this reason you have been asked to provide a photocopy of your driver licence. The TAC respects your privacy and undertakes to use your personal information in accordance with the Transport Accident Act 1986 and the Information Privacy Act 2000.
• Once you have provided the TAC's fleet administrator with your signed 2008 Safe Driving Policy acknowledgement form and photocopy of your driver licence, the fleet administrator will update your driver profile.
• Your licence information is used to initiate your driver profile and to confirm that at the time you agreed to the conditions stated in TAC's Safe Driving Policy, you held a current Victorian driver licence.
• The TAC may disclose your personal information from your licence to your manager or supervisor for the purposes of the provision of counselling under the disciplinary provisions of this policy. Your personal information from your licence will not otherwise be disclosed. The copy of your licence will be securely stored and will be retained.
• The TAC will notuse your licence to check demerit points, driving restrictions or offences. Failure to sign the Safe Driving Policy and provide a copy of your driver licence will affect your eligibility to drive a TAC vehicle. Each time you drive a TAC vehicle, the onus is upon you to only drive if you are licensed to do so.

3.0 TAC SAFE DRIVING POLICY ACKNOWLEDGEMENT FORM

The success of the TAC's Safe Driving Policy depends on the commitment of all TAC employees to make it work. Therefore, please ensure that you:

• comply with the policy;
• follow the advice given in the policy and abide by the appropriate road laws;
• avoid risk-taking when driving;
• are fit to drive a vehicle;
• hold a current and valid licence to drive a motor car in Victoria;
• carry your current and valid licence with you at all times whilst driving; and
• be aware of the implications of being convicted of drink-driving or other serious traffic offences whilst driving a TAC vehicle, including the possibility of termination of your employment.

This form asks you to acknowledge that you have read and agree to adhere to the TAC's Safe Driving Policy (2008). It also asks you to confirm that you are licensed to drive a motor car in Victoria.

TAC SAFE DRIVING POLICY ACKNOWLEDGEMENT FORM

The success of the TAC's Safe Driving Policy depends on the commitment of all TAC employees
to make it work. Therefore, please ensure that you:

• comply with the policy;
• follow the advice given in the policy and abide by the appropriate road laws;
• avoid risk-taking when driving;
• are fit to drive a vehicle;
• hold a current and valid licence to drive a motor car in Victoria;
• carry your current and valid licence with you at all times whilst driving; and
• be aware of the implications of being convicted of drink-driving or other serious traffic offences whilst driving a TAC vehicle, including the possibility of termination of your employment.

This form asks you to acknowledge that you have read and agree to adhere to the TAC's Safe Driving Policy (2008). It also asks you to confirm that you are licensed to drive a motor car in Victoria.

I ____________________________________________________ have read and agree to adhere to the TAC's
Safe Driving Policy.
Signed ______________________________________________ Date ___________________________

PLEASE SUBMIT THIS SIGNED AND COM PLETED FORM TO TH E FLEET OFFICER, WITH A PHOTOCOPY OF YOUR DRIVER LICENCE ATTACHED.

[Your full name printed clearly]
[Your signature] [Today's date]

4.0 BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR THE SAFE DRIVING POLICY

The TAC's Safe Driving Policy has been based on research and programs that are known to be effective in reducing the number and severity of road crashes. The policy will be reviewed annually and, where evidence supports it, the policy will be updated. Summarised below is the research and program information on which the TAC policy was based.

SPEEDING

Speed is one of the major factors contributing to crashes on Victoria's roads. Research indicates that as speed increases (and the road environment remains the same):

• the possibility for road-users to communicate with and perceive the intentions of other road-users in time to react appropriately decreases – as does the ability to detect hazards;
• stopping distances increase and other manoeuvres to avoid accidents become more difficult; and * the severity of an impact increases. Numerous studies over the world have researched the effect of reducing travel speed and the relationship between velocity at impact and risk. These studies show that as impact speed increases so do the number and severity of injuries. Furthermore, there are several studies showing correlation between speed at impact and injury severity for pedestrians. Research conducted by the Centre for Automotive

Safety Research at Adelaide University found that for every 5km/h increase in vehicle speed over the limit in a 60km/h zone, the risk of crashing doubles. A driver travelling at 70km/h faces four times the risk of a driver travelling at the speed limit. A decrease in motorists' average travel speed could have substantial impact on road trauma in Victoria. Swedish research indicates that a 10% reduction in mean travel speed is likely to result in a 36% reduction in fatalities (Elvik, Christensen & Amundsen, 2004; Nilsson, 1982).

ALCOHOL AND OTHER DRUGS

Consuming even low levels of alcohol can impact on the skills necessary for driving. In a study participants were administered 10 to 15 grams of alcohol at 30 minute intervals, until participants reached a BAC of .10. Participants were required to perform eye-hand co-ordination tasks, also at 30 minute intervals. Results demonstrated that for each .01 increase in BAC, performance on this task decreased significantly (Dawson & Reid, 1997). Drugs can impair a driver's ability to drive safely and accident fatalities involving drug use is on the rise.

The two major illegal drugs of concern include THC, which is the active substance in cannabis and the stimulant methylamphetamine. Studies have shown that driving under the influence of these drugs greatly increases the risk of being responsible for a fatal crash. Statistics show that in 2001, 16.5% of driver fatalities had used THC or a stimulant drug. This figure rose to 20.4% in 2002 (Swann, 2004). The risk of an accident also increases when alcohol

is consumed in conjunction with other drugs. A study by Haworth and Vulcan (1997) compared Victorian drivers who died in single vehicle crashes with a control sample. Their results showed (where the BAC of crashed drivers were known) 16% of crashed drivers were found to have consumed both cannabis and alcohol whereas none of the control drivers were found to have consumed both.

FATIGUE

Fatigue is basically a lack of sleep. Driving when fatigued significantly increases injury risk by impairing driving skills or because of the driver's inability to resist falling asleep at the wheel.

Although it is difficult to know the extent to which fatigue plays a role in road trauma, it is estimated that it is a factor in about 25% of crashes. Almost a third of severe single vehicle crashes in rural areas involve the driver being fatigued. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (2002) in the US has reported that over 35% of American drivers reported falling asleep at least once at the wheel of their car.

Most fatigue-related crashes occur when drivers would normally be asleep, i.e. between 11pm and 6am. A study comparing impairment caused by fatigue with impairment caused by alcohol intake has shown that:

• after subjectshave been awake for 17 hours, their cognitive and psychomotor performance were equivalent to impairment levels observed at a BAC of .05; and
• after subjectshave been awake for 24 hours, their performance decreased to a level of impairment equivalent to that observed at a BAC of approximately .10 (Dawson & Reid, 1997). Taking a short nap (of about 15 to 20 minutes) has been shown to improve subsequent performance, even among sleep deprived people.

HEAD RESTS

Head restraint position is important in helping to prevent whiplash in rear impact crashes. Whiplash is caused by the head extending back from the torso in the initial stages of a rear impact, and then being thrown forward.

To prevent whiplash, the head rest should be at least as high as the head's centre of gravity (eye level and higher) and as close to the back of the head as possible. A low head rest can act as a pivot that will cause the head to extend even further backwards. If the head rest is too far away from the back of the head, it will be ineffective in minimising movement.

Research indicates that a poorly positioned head rest can cause up to six times the risk of whiplash injury compared with a safely positioned one.

SEATBELTS

Seatbelts are a proven means of reducing injury to vehicle occupants in the event of a crash. Many studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of seatbelts in saving lives and preventing serious injury. Research indicates that seatbelts may reduce fatalities by up to 50% (Evans, 1989; Nygren, 1984). In Victoria, despite having very high seatbelt wearing rates (approximately 95% of drivers and front seat passengers), about 20% of car occupants killed are not wearing seat belts. Seatbelt reminder systems are able to assist in this regard.

There is, however, evidence indicating that violent contact with seatbelt hardware during a crash could cause injury. New seatbelt designs may reduce the likelihood of sustaining seatbelt injuries (Fildes, Lane, Lenard and Vulcan 1991, 1994). The features listed below have been included, where possible, in the TAC's Vehicle Purchase Policy.

• a closer fit of the occupant to the seat throughpre-tensioning devices and webbing clamps;
• seats moulded to fit the curve of the spine;
• reduced seatbelt slack; and
• load limiters reducing the movement of body weight in a collision.

These changes may result in fewer chest and neck injuries through contact with the seatbelt itself. They may also reduce head injuries associated with contacting interior components of the car.  Overall, though, the safety value of wearing seatbelts is overwhelmingly positive.

DAYTIME RUNNING LIGHTS (DRLS)

Daytime Running Lights (DRLs) are headlights that are illuminated during the day in order to make vehicles more visible and thus reduce their involvement in crashes. It is possible to fit vehicles with a device that will automatically activate DRLs when the ignition is switched on but is overridden by full strength headlights. Initial evidence from studies into the effectiveness of DRLs indicates that the ability of drivers to see cars on the road during daylight hours is limited. Investigations of daytime accidents indicate that up to 50% of drivers

report the cause as failing to see the other vehicle. For accidents at intersections this figure may increase to 80%. A study conducted by Koornstra (1998) in the Netherlands estimated if the entire driving community used DRLs in the European Union, this would prevent:

• 24.6% of fatalities in multiple vehicle day time accidents;
• 20% of casualties in multiple vehicle day time accidents; and
• 12.4% of multiple vehicle daytime accidents.

The significant effect of DRLs on reducing accidents and injuries changes over different latitudes as natural light in different countries has different qualities. Based on latitude, Koornstra (1998) predicted DRLs would reduce multiple vehicle daytime fatalities by around 16% in Victoria.

The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) (1999) reviewed a number of studies from the USA, Canada and Scandinavia and cited that DRLs reduced daytime crashes from 6% to 37% for left hand turns, which is the equivalent of right hand turns in Australia. DRLs have been found to increase drivers' peripheral perception of vehicles. It is also easier for drivers to estimate the distance to vehicles with DRLs.

FUEL ECONOMY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Motor vehicle use is a major contributor to Melbourne's main air pollution problems. Transport contributed 16.1% to Victoria's total greenhouse gas emissions in 1999, with cars being responsible for 62% of the total (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, 2002).

While fuel consumption is directly linked to both the environmental impact of vehicles and the economy of running vehicles, the relationship between fuel consumption and safety is not fully understood.

There does, however, appear to be some indirect links such that low fuel consumption within fleet vehicles is to be encouraged. Fuel consumption mainly occurs in two ways:

• consumption at a constant speed; and
• consumption because of changes in driving direction and speed.

Fuel consumption increases at speeds above 60 to 70 km/h while changes at any speed will increase use of fuel. It is, therefore, beneficial to use the car in a smooth driving manner. A non-aggressive driving style, with as few stop-starts as possible, will decrease fuel

1. This style of driving has the potential to improve safety by increasing the distance between your car and the vehicle in front. Planning your drive more efficiently and overtaking less often is more fuel efficient. There are large differences in fuel consumption between car models and engine sizes. The government has set a National Average Fuel

Consumption agreement with the motor industry with an aim of reducing the average fuel consumption of new cars sold in Australia to 6.8 litres per 100 kilometres by 2010 (The Australian Government, 2005). In order to contribute to this target, it is appropriate for the

TAC to purchase or lease vehicles that consume the least fuel in the vehicle range that meets the TAC's safety guidelines.

AIRBAGS

Airbags are recommended as a supplement to three-point seatbelt protection. They are a useful countermeasure to help reduce injuries. In the case of frontal collisions, frontal airbags help to reduce contact with the steering wheel and dashboard, cushion the impact and reduce seatbelt loading. A study by Zador and Ciccone (1991, cited in Evans & Frick, 1992) found that airbags reduced fatalities by 21% for unbelted drivers and by 9% for belted drivers.

For side impact collisions which are often extremely severe, side airbags have the potential to make significant improvements to the protection of both front and back seat passengers. Side airbags are designed to protect the chest and thorax area. They are particularly useful if they can provide both chest and head protection (Fildes et al., 1994). Combination head/torso design airbags are one type of head protecting side airbags. Another type is curtain airbags.

Curtain airbags are designed to protect the driver's head in a crash. They activate instantaneously, deploying from the top of the door rails above the side window to form a cushion between the driver and the window. Curtain airbags stay in place if the car rolls over to protect the occupant's head and can make the difference between life and death. Research from USA estimates that head protecting side airbags can reduce driver deaths in the event of a side impact crash by close to 40% (IIHS, 2006). Without them in a side impact crash, there is little to protect your head from striking the side of the car or rigid objects such as trees and poles.

MOBILE PHONES

The Use of Mobile Phones While Driving

Victoria banned the use of hand-held mobile phones while driving in 1998. The legislation requires drivers to stop their vehicles and move off the road before using a mobile phone.

The risk of being involved in a crash when using a mobile phone (hand-held or hands-free) is four times higher than when not using a phone (The Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents, 2002).

Driving and Simulation Research

Driving requires concentration and awareness of what's going on around you. Talking on a mobile phone while driving can distract you and seriously affect your ability to control your vehicle.

• Research conducted in the USA showed that those talking on a mobile phone (hand-held or hands-free), while completing a simulated driving task, missed twice as many traffic lights and were also slower to react to those signals, than those not talking on a mobile phone (Strayer & Johnston, 2001). * Research in Finland was conducted using on-road car trials. Results showed that brake reaction time was impaired to an equivalent extent when comparing tasks simulating number dialling and the cognitive overload of conversation (Lamble, Kauranen, Laakso & Summala, 1999).
• A Queensland Griffith University non-simulation study,found that using a hands-free kit significantly impacted on drivers ability to corner, brake and avoid an obstacle.

Hands-Free versus the Front Seat Passenger

The penalty for driving while using a hand held mobile phone is a monetary fine and three demerit points. Although not yet illegal, the TAC strongly discourages the use of hands-free phones. The difference between using a hands-free phone and speaking with an adult passenger in the front seat of your car is that the passenger can also see the conditions of the road you are driving on. As a result, the passenger can stop the conversation if they see you losing concentration or if the road conditions require greater attention. A study performed by the University of Toronto (Redelmeier & Tibshirani, 1997) found that talking on a mobile phone while driving quadruples the risk of crashing and that hands free devices offer no advantage over traditional hand held devices.

5.0 References

Coxon, C., Paine, M., & Haley, J. (2005). Side impacts and improved occupant protection. Paper presented at the 19th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles, Washington DC. Dawson, D., & Reid, K. (1997). Fatigue, alcohol and performance impairment. Nature, 388, 235.

Department of Natural Resources and Environment. (2002). Victorian Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1999.

Department of Natural Resources and Environment: Victoria. Elvik, R., Christensen, P., & Amundsen, A. (2004). Speed and road accidents. An evaluation of the power model. TØI report 740/2004. Institute of Transport Economics TØI, Oslo.

Evans, L. (1989). Airbag effectiveness in preventing fatalities predicted according to type of crash, driver age and blood alcohol concentration. Paper presented at the 33rd Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine, Baltimore, 307-322.

Evans, L., & Frick, M.C. (1992). Car mass and fatality risk: Has the relationship changed? Paper presented at the 36th Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine, Portland, 83-92.

Fildes, B.N., Lane, J.C., Lenard, J., & Vulcan, A.P. (1991). Passenger cars and occupant injury. Federal Office of Road Safety, Report No. CR 95.

Fildes, B.N., Lane, J.C., Lenard, J., & Vulcan, A.P. (1994). Passenger cars and occupant injury: side impact crashes.

Federal Office of Road Safety, Report No. CR 134. Haworth, N., & Vulcan, P. (1997). The roles of alcohol and other drugs in single vehicle crashes. In C.Mercier-Guyon (Ed.). Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Alcohol, Drugs and Traffic Safety, 1, 111-118. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS).

Side airbags are reducing driver deaths in both cars and SUVs, Status Report, Vol. 41, No. 8, October 7, 2006. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) (1999). Daytime running lights. Retrieved June 22, 2005 from www.highwaysafety.org/safety_facts/qanda/drl.htm

Koornstra, M. (1998). The safety effects of daytime running Lights. SWOV Research Activities, 9,1-3. Lamble, D., Kauranen, T., Laakso, M., & Summala, H. (1999). Cognitive load and detection thresholds in car following situations: safety implications for using mobile (cellular) telephones while driving. Accident Prevention and Analysis, 31(6), 617-623.

Lenne, M., Triggs, T., & Redman, J. (1998). Sleep loss or alcohol: Which has the greater impact upon driving ability? Paper presented at the Proceedings of the Road Safety Research Policing, Education Conference, Wellington, Vol. 2, 23-26.

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (2002). National survey of distracted and drowsy driving attitudes and behaviors: 2002. Retrieved September 19, 2008 from http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/drowsy_ driving1/survey- istractive03/summary.htm

Nilsson, G. (1982). The effects of speed limits on traffic accidents in Sweden. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the OECD International Symposium, Dublin: The effects of speed limits on traffic accidents and transport energy use.

Nygren, A. (1984). Injuries to car occupants some aspects Redelmeier, D.A., & Tibshirani, R.J. (1997). Association between cellular telephone calls and motor vehicle

1. New England Journal ofMedicine, 336,453-458.

Strayer, D.L., & Johnston, W.A. (2001). Driver to distraction : Dual-task studies of simulated driving and conversing on a cellular phone. Psychological Science, 12(6).

Swann, P. (2004). Saliva testing for illicit drugs VicRoads: Victoria The Australian Government (2005). Securing Australia's Energy Future. Retrieved June 22, 2005 from http://www.dpmc.gov.au/publications/energy–future/chapters6/9_standards.htm The Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (2002).

The risk of using a mobile phone while driving.Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions: UK.